(++) appends two lists, i.e.,

[x1, ..., xm] ++ [y1, ..., yn] == [x1, ..., xm, y1, ..., yn]
[x1, ..., xm] ++ [y1, ...] == [x1, ..., xm, y1, ...]

If the first list is not finite, the result is the first list.

Performance considerations

Examples

>>> [1, 2, 3] ++ [4, 5, 6]
[1,2,3,4,5,6]

>>> [] ++ [1, 2, 3]
[1,2,3]

>>> [3, 2, 1] ++ []
[3,2,1]

\(\mathcal{O}(1)\). Extract the first element of a list, which must be non-empty.

To disable the warning about partiality put {-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wno-x-partial -Wno-unrecognised-warning-flags #-} at the top of the file. To disable it throughout a package put the same options into ghc-options section of Cabal file. To disable it in GHCi put :set -Wno-x-partial -Wno-unrecognised-warning-flags into ~/.ghci config file. See also the migration guide.

Examples

>>> head [1, 2, 3]
1

>>> head [1..]
1

>>> head []
*** Exception: Prelude.head: empty list

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). Extract the last element of a list, which must be finite and non-empty.

WARNING: This function is partial. Consider using unsnoc instead.

Examples

>>> last [1, 2, 3]
3

>>> last [1..]
* Hangs forever *

>>> last []
*** Exception: Prelude.last: empty list

\(\mathcal{O}(1)\). Extract the elements after the head of a list, which must be non-empty.

To disable the warning about partiality put {-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wno-x-partial -Wno-unrecognised-warning-flags #-} at the top of the file. To disable it throughout a package put the same options into ghc-options section of Cabal file. To disable it in GHCi put :set -Wno-x-partial -Wno-unrecognised-warning-flags into ~/.ghci config file. See also the migration guide.

Examples

>>> tail [1, 2, 3]
[2,3]

>>> tail [1]
[]

>>> tail []
*** Exception: Prelude.tail: empty list

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). Return all the elements of a list except the last one. The list must be non-empty.

WARNING: This function is partial. Consider using unsnoc instead.

Examples

>>> init [1, 2, 3]
[1,2]

>>> init [1]
[]

>>> init []
*** Exception: Prelude.init: empty list

\(\mathcal{O}(1)\). Decompose a list into its head and tail.

• If the list is empty, returns Nothing.
• If the list is non-empty, returns Just (x, xs), where x is the head of the list and xs its tail.

Examples

>>> uncons []
Nothing

>>> uncons [1]
Just (1,[])

>>> uncons [1, 2, 3]
Just (1,[2,3])

Since: base-4.8.0.0

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). Decompose a list into init and last.

• If the list is empty, returns Nothing.
• If the list is non-empty, returns Just (xs, x), where xs is the initial part of the list and x is its last element.

unsnoc is dual to uncons: for a finite list xs

unsnoc xs = (\(hd, tl) -> (reverse tl, hd)) <$> uncons (reverse xs)

Examples

>>> unsnoc []
Nothing

>>> unsnoc [1]
Just ([],1)

>>> unsnoc [1, 2, 3]
Just ([1,2],3)

Laziness

>>> fst <$> unsnoc [undefined]
Just []

>>> head . fst <$> unsnoc (1 : undefined)
Just *** Exception: Prelude.undefined

>>> head . fst <$> unsnoc (1 : 2 : undefined)
Just 1

Since: base-4.19.0.0

Construct a list from a single element.

Examples

>>> singleton True
[True]

>>> singleton [1, 2, 3]
[[1,2,3]]

>>> singleton 'c'
"c"

Since: base-4.15.0.0

\(\mathcal{O}(1)\). Test whether a list is empty.

>>> null []
True
>>> null [1]
False
>>> null [1..]
False

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). length returns the length of a finite list as an Int. It is an instance of the more general genericLength, the result type of which may be any kind of number.

>>> length []
0
>>> length ['a', 'b', 'c']
3
>>> length [1..]
* Hangs forever *

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). map f xs is the list obtained by applying f to each element of xs, i.e.,

map f [x1, x2, ..., xn] == [f x1, f x2, ..., f xn]
map f [x1, x2, ...] == [f x1, f x2, ...]

this means that map id == id

Examples

>>> map (+1) [1, 2, 3]
[2,3,4]

>>> map id [1, 2, 3]
[1,2,3]

>>> map (\n -> 3 * n + 1) [1, 2, 3]
[4,7,10]

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). reverse xs returns the elements of xs in reverse order. xs must be finite.

Laziness

>>> head (reverse [undefined, 1])
1

>>> reverse (1 : 2 : undefined)
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

Examples

>>> reverse []
[]

>>> reverse [42]
[42]

>>> reverse [2,5,7]
[7,5,2]

>>> reverse [1..]
* Hangs forever *

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). The intersperse function takes an element and a list and `intersperses' that element between the elements of the list.

Laziness

>>> take 1 (intersperse undefined ('a' : undefined))
"a"

>>> take 2 (intersperse ',' ('a' : undefined))
"a*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

Examples

>>> intersperse ',' "abcde"
"a,b,c,d,e"

>>> intersperse 1 [3, 4, 5]
[3,1,4,1,5]

intercalate xs xss is equivalent to (concat (intersperse xs xss)). It inserts the list xs in between the lists in xss and concatenates the result.

Laziness

>>> take 5 (intercalate undefined ("Lorem" : undefined))
"Lorem"

>>> take 6 (intercalate ", " ("Lorem" : undefined))
"Lorem*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

Examples

>>> intercalate ", " ["Lorem", "ipsum", "dolor"]
"Lorem, ipsum, dolor"

>>> intercalate [0, 1] [[2, 3], [4, 5, 6], []]
[2,3,0,1,4,5,6,0,1]

>>> intercalate [1, 2, 3] [[], []]
[1,2,3]

The transpose function transposes the rows and columns of its argument.

Laziness

>>> take 1 (transpose ['a' : undefined, 'b' : undefined])
["ab"]

Examples

>>> transpose [[1,2,3],[4,5,6]]
[[1,4],[2,5],[3,6]]

>>> transpose [[10,11],[20],[],[30,31,32]]
[[10,20,30],[11,31],[32]]

>>> transpose (repeat [])
* Hangs forever *

The subsequences function returns the list of all subsequences of the argument.

Laziness

>>> take 1 (subsequences undefined)
[[]]
>>> take 2 (subsequences ('a' : undefined))
["","a"]

Examples

>>> subsequences "abc"
["","a","b","ab","c","ac","bc","abc"]

>>> take 8 $ subsequences ['a'..]
["","a","b","ab","c","ac","bc","abc"]

The permutations function returns the list of all permutations of the argument.

Note that the order of permutations is not lexicographic. It satisfies the following property:

map (take n) (take (product [1..n]) (permutations ([1..n] ++ undefined))) == permutations [1..n]

Laziness

Examples

>>> permutations "abc"
["abc","bac","cba","bca","cab","acb"]

>>> permutations [1, 2]
[[1,2],[2,1]]

>>> permutations []
[[]]

>>> take 6 $ map (take 3) $ permutations ['a'..]
["abc","bac","cba","bca","cab","acb"]

foldl, applied to a binary operator, a starting value (typically the left-identity of the operator), and a list, reduces the list using the binary operator, from left to right:

foldl f z [x1, x2, ..., xn] == (...((z `f` x1) `f` x2) `f`...) `f` xn

The list must be finite.

>>> foldl (+) 0 [1..4]
10
>>> foldl (+) 42 []
42
>>> foldl (-) 100 [1..4]
90
>>> foldl (\reversedString nextChar -> nextChar : reversedString) "foo" ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
"dcbafoo"
>>> foldl (+) 0 [1..]
* Hangs forever *

A strict version of foldl.

foldl1 is a variant of foldl that has no starting value argument, and thus must be applied to non-empty lists. Note that unlike foldl, the accumulated value must be of the same type as the list elements.

>>> foldl1 (+) [1..4]
10
>>> foldl1 (+) []
*** Exception: Prelude.foldl1: empty list
>>> foldl1 (-) [1..4]
-8
>>> foldl1 (&&) [True, False, True, True]
False
>>> foldl1 (||) [False, False, True, True]
True
>>> foldl1 (+) [1..]
* Hangs forever *

A strict version of foldl1.

foldr, applied to a binary operator, a starting value (typically the right-identity of the operator), and a list, reduces the list using the binary operator, from right to left:

foldr f z [x1, x2, ..., xn] == x1 `f` (x2 `f` ... (xn `f` z)...)

foldr1 is a variant of foldr that has no starting value argument, and thus must be applied to non-empty lists. Note that unlike foldr, the accumulated value must be of the same type as the list elements.

>>> foldr1 (+) [1..4]
10
>>> foldr1 (+) []
*** Exception: Prelude.foldr1: empty list
>>> foldr1 (-) [1..4]
-2
>>> foldr1 (&&) [True, False, True, True]
False
>>> foldr1 (||) [False, False, True, True]
True
>>> force $ foldr1 (+) [1..]
*** Exception: stack overflow

Concatenate a list of lists.

Examples

>>> concat [[1,2,3], [4,5], [6], []]
[1,2,3,4,5,6]

>>> concat []
[]

>>> concat [[42]]
[42]

Map a function returning a list over a list and concatenate the results. concatMap can be seen as the composition of concat and map.

concatMap f xs == (concat . map f) xs

Examples

>>> concatMap (\i -> [-i,i]) []
[]

>>> concatMap (\i -> [-i, i]) [1, 2, 3]
[-1,1,-2,2,-3,3]

>>> concatMap ('replicate' 3) [0, 2, 4]
[0,0,0,2,2,2,4,4,4]

and returns the conjunction of a Boolean list. For the result to be True, the list must be finite; False, however, results from a False value at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

Examples

>>> and []
True

>>> and [True]
True

>>> and [False]
False

>>> and [True, True, False]
False

>>> and (False : repeat True) -- Infinite list [False,True,True,True,True,True,True...
False

>>> and (repeat True)
* Hangs forever *

or returns the disjunction of a Boolean list. For the result to be False, the list must be finite; True, however, results from a True value at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

Examples

>>> or []
False

>>> or [True]
True

>>> or [False]
False

>>> or [True, True, False]
True

>>> or (True : repeat False) -- Infinite list [True,False,False,False,False,False,False...
True

>>> or (repeat False)
* Hangs forever *

Applied to a predicate and a list, any determines if any element of the list satisfies the predicate. For the result to be False, the list must be finite; True, however, results from a True value for the predicate applied to an element at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

Examples

>>> any (> 3) []
False

>>> any (> 3) [1,2]
False

>>> any (> 3) [1,2,3,4,5]
True

>>> any (> 3) [1..]
True

>>> any (> 3) [0, -1..]
* Hangs forever *

Applied to a predicate and a list, all determines if all elements of the list satisfy the predicate. For the result to be True, the list must be finite; False, however, results from a False value for the predicate applied to an element at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

Examples

>>> all (> 3) []
True

>>> all (> 3) [1,2]
False

>>> all (> 3) [1,2,3,4,5]
False

>>> all (> 3) [1..]
False

>>> all (> 3) [4..]
* Hangs forever *

The sum function computes the sum of a finite list of numbers.

>>> sum []
0
>>> sum [42]
42
>>> sum [1..10]
55
>>> sum [4.1, 2.0, 1.7]
7.8
>>> sum [1..]
* Hangs forever *

The product function computes the product of a finite list of numbers.

>>> product []
1
>>> product [42]
42
>>> product [1..10]
3628800
>>> product [4.1, 2.0, 1.7]
13.939999999999998
>>> product [1..]
* Hangs forever *

maximum returns the maximum value from a list, which must be non-empty, finite, and of an ordered type. This function is equivalent to foldr1 max, and its behavior on lists with multiple maxima depends on the relevant implementation of max. For the default implementation of max, list order is used as a tie-breaker: if there are multiple maxima, the rightmost of them is chosen (this is equivalent to maximumBy compare).

>>> maximum []
*** Exception: Prelude.maximum: empty list
>>> maximum [42]
42
>>> maximum [55, -12, 7, 0, -89]
55
>>> maximum [1..]
* Hangs forever *

minimum returns the minimum value from a list, which must be non-empty, finite, and of an ordered type. This function is equivalent to foldr1 min, and its behavior on lists with multiple minima depends on the relevant implementation of min. For the default implementation of min, list order is used as a tie-breaker: if there are multiple minima, the leftmost of them is chosen (this is equivalent to minimumBy compare).

>>> minimum []
*** Exception: Prelude.minimum: empty list
>>> minimum [42]
42
>>> minimum [55, -12, 7, 0, -89]
-89
>>> minimum [1..]
* Hangs forever *

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). scanl is similar to foldl, but returns a list of successive reduced values from the left:

scanl f z [x1, x2, ...] == [z, z `f` x1, (z `f` x1) `f` x2, ...]

Note that

last (scanl f z xs) == foldl f z xs

Examples

>>> scanl (+) 0 [1..4]
[0,1,3,6,10]

>>> scanl (+) 42 []
[42]

>>> scanl (-) 100 [1..4]
[100,99,97,94,90]

>>> scanl (\reversedString nextChar -> nextChar : reversedString) "foo" ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
["foo","afoo","bafoo","cbafoo","dcbafoo"]

>>> take 10 (scanl (+) 0 [1..])
[0,1,3,6,10,15,21,28,36,45]

>>> take 1 (scanl undefined 'a' undefined)
"a"

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). A strict version of scanl.

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). scanl1 is a variant of scanl that has no starting value argument:

scanl1 f [x1, x2, ...] == [x1, x1 `f` x2, ...]

Examples

>>> scanl1 (+) [1..4]
[1,3,6,10]

>>> scanl1 (+) []
[]

>>> scanl1 (-) [1..4]
[1,-1,-4,-8]

>>> scanl1 (&&) [True, False, True, True]
[True,False,False,False]

>>> scanl1 (||) [False, False, True, True]
[False,False,True,True]

>>> take 10 (scanl1 (+) [1..])
[1,3,6,10,15,21,28,36,45,55]

>>> take 1 (scanl1 undefined ('a' : undefined))
"a"

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). scanr is the right-to-left dual of scanl. Note that the order of parameters on the accumulating function are reversed compared to scanl. Also note that

head (scanr f z xs) == foldr f z xs.

Examples

>>> scanr (+) 0 [1..4]
[10,9,7,4,0]

>>> scanr (+) 42 []
[42]

>>> scanr (-) 100 [1..4]
[98,-97,99,-96,100]

>>> scanr (\nextChar reversedString -> nextChar : reversedString) "foo" ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
["abcdfoo","bcdfoo","cdfoo","dfoo","foo"]

>>> force $ scanr (+) 0 [1..]
*** Exception: stack overflow

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). scanr1 is a variant of scanr that has no starting value argument.

Examples

>>> scanr1 (+) [1..4]
[10,9,7,4]

>>> scanr1 (+) []
[]

>>> scanr1 (-) [1..4]
[-2,3,-1,4]

>>> scanr1 (&&) [True, False, True, True]
[False,False,True,True]

>>> scanr1 (||) [True, True, False, False]
[True,True,False,False]

>>> force $ scanr1 (+) [1..]
*** Exception: stack overflow

The mapAccumL function behaves like a combination of map and foldl; it applies a function to each element of a list, passing an accumulating parameter from left to right, and returning a final value of this accumulator together with the new list.

mapAccumL does not force accumulator if it is unused:

>>> take 1 (snd (mapAccumL (\_ x -> (undefined, x)) undefined ('a' : undefined)))
"a"

The mapAccumR function behaves like a combination of map and foldr; it applies a function to each element of a list, passing an accumulating parameter from right to left, and returning a final value of this accumulator together with the new list.

iterate f x returns an infinite list of repeated applications of f to x:

iterate f x == [x, f x, f (f x), ...]

Laziness

>>> take 1 $ iterate undefined 42
[42]

Examples

>>> take 10 $ iterate not True
[True,False,True,False,True,False,True,False,True,False]

>>> take 10 $ iterate (+3) 42
[42,45,48,51,54,57,60,63,66,69]

>>> take 10 $ iterate id 1
[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1]

iterate' is the strict version of iterate.

It forces the result of each application of the function to weak head normal form (WHNF) before proceeding.

>>> take 1 $ iterate' undefined 42
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

repeat x is an infinite list, with x the value of every element.

Examples

>>> take 10 $ repeat 17
[17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17, 17]

>>> repeat undefined
[*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

replicate n x is a list of length n with x the value of every element. It is an instance of the more general genericReplicate, in which n may be of any integral type.

Examples

>>> replicate 0 True
[]

>>> replicate (-1) True
[]

>>> replicate 4 True
[True,True,True,True]

cycle ties a finite list into a circular one, or equivalently, the infinite repetition of the original list. It is the identity on infinite lists.

Examples

>>> cycle []
*** Exception: Prelude.cycle: empty list

>>> take 10 (cycle [42])
[42,42,42,42,42,42,42,42,42,42]

>>> take 10 (cycle [2, 5, 7])
[2,5,7,2,5,7,2,5,7,2]

>>> take 1 (cycle (42 : undefined))
[42]

The unfoldr function is a `dual' to foldr: while foldr reduces a list to a summary value, unfoldr builds a list from a seed value. The function takes the element and returns Nothing if it is done producing the list or returns Just (a,b), in which case, a is a prepended to the list and b is used as the next element in a recursive call. For example,

iterate f == unfoldr (\x -> Just (x, f x))

In some cases, unfoldr can undo a foldr operation:

unfoldr f' (foldr f z xs) == xs

if the following holds:

f' (f x y) = Just (x,y)
f' z       = Nothing

Laziness

>>> take 1 (unfoldr (\x -> Just (x, undefined)) 'a')
"a"

Examples

>>> unfoldr (\b -> if b == 0 then Nothing else Just (b, b-1)) 10
[10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1]

>>> take 10 $ unfoldr (\(x, y) -> Just (x, (y, x + y))) (0, 1)
[0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,54]

take n, applied to a list xs, returns the prefix of xs of length n, or xs itself if n >= length xs.

It is an instance of the more general genericTake, in which n may be of any integral type.

Laziness

>>> take 0 undefined
[]
>>> take 2 (1 : 2 : undefined)
[1,2]

Examples

>>> take 5 "Hello World!"
"Hello"

>>> take 3 [1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3]

>>> take 3 [1,2]
[1,2]

>>> take 3 []
[]

>>> take (-1) [1,2]
[]

>>> take 0 [1,2]
[]

drop n xs returns the suffix of xs after the first n elements, or [] if n >= length xs.

It is an instance of the more general genericDrop, in which n may be of any integral type.

Examples

>>> drop 6 "Hello World!"
"World!"

>>> drop 3 [1,2,3,4,5]
[4,5]

>>> drop 3 [1,2]
[]

>>> drop 3 []
[]

>>> drop (-1) [1,2]
[1,2]

>>> drop 0 [1,2]
[1,2]

splitAt n xs returns a tuple where first element is xs prefix of length n and second element is the remainder of the list:

splitAt is an instance of the more general genericSplitAt, in which n may be of any integral type.

Laziness

>>> fst (splitAt 0 undefined)
[]

>>> take 1 (fst (splitAt 10 (1 : undefined)))
[1]

Examples

>>> splitAt 6 "Hello World!"
("Hello ","World!")

>>> splitAt 3 [1,2,3,4,5]
([1,2,3],[4,5])

>>> splitAt 1 [1,2,3]
([1],[2,3])

>>> splitAt 3 [1,2,3]
([1,2,3],[])

>>> splitAt 4 [1,2,3]
([1,2,3],[])

>>> splitAt 0 [1,2,3]
([],[1,2,3])

>>> splitAt (-1) [1,2,3]
([],[1,2,3])

takeWhile, applied to a predicate p and a list xs, returns the longest prefix (possibly empty) of xs of elements that satisfy p.

Laziness

>>> takeWhile (const False) undefined
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

>>> takeWhile (const False) (undefined : undefined)
[]

>>> take 1 (takeWhile (const True) (1 : undefined))
[1]

Examples

>>> takeWhile (< 3) [1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4]
[1,2]

>>> takeWhile (< 9) [1,2,3]
[1,2,3]

>>> takeWhile (< 0) [1,2,3]
[]

dropWhile p xs returns the suffix remaining after takeWhile p xs.

Examples

>>> dropWhile (< 3) [1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3]
[3,4,5,1,2,3]

>>> dropWhile (< 9) [1,2,3]
[]

>>> dropWhile (< 0) [1,2,3]
[1,2,3]

The dropWhileEnd function drops the largest suffix of a list in which the given predicate holds for all elements.

Laziness

>>> take 1 (dropWhileEnd (< 0) (1 : undefined))
[1]

>>> take 1 (reverse $ dropWhile (< 0) $ reverse (1 : undefined))
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

>>> last (dropWhileEnd (< 0) [undefined, 1])
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

>>> last (reverse $ dropWhile (< 0) $ reverse [undefined, 1])
1

Examples

>>> dropWhileEnd isSpace "foo\n"
"foo"

>>> dropWhileEnd isSpace "foo bar"
"foo bar"
>>> dropWhileEnd (> 10) [1..20]
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

Since: base-4.5.0.0

span, applied to a predicate p and a list xs, returns a tuple where first element is the longest prefix (possibly empty) of xs of elements that satisfy p and second element is the remainder of the list:

span p xs is equivalent to (takeWhile p xs, dropWhile p xs), even if p is _|_.

Laziness

>>> span undefined []
([],[])
>>> fst (span (const False) undefined)
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined
>>> fst (span (const False) (undefined : undefined))
[]
>>> take 1 (fst (span (const True) (1 : undefined)))
[1]

>>> take 10 (fst (span (const True) [1..]))
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

Examples

>>> span (< 3) [1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4]
([1,2],[3,4,1,2,3,4])

>>> span (< 9) [1,2,3]
([1,2,3],[])

>>> span (< 0) [1,2,3]
([],[1,2,3])

break, applied to a predicate p and a list xs, returns a tuple where first element is longest prefix (possibly empty) of xs of elements that do not satisfy p and second element is the remainder of the list:

break p is equivalent to span (not . p) and consequently to (takeWhile (not . p) xs, dropWhile (not . p) xs), even if p is _|_.

Laziness

>>> break undefined []
([],[])

>>> fst (break (const True) undefined)
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

>>> fst (break (const True) (undefined : undefined))
[]

>>> take 1 (fst (break (const False) (1 : undefined)))
[1]

>>> take 10 (fst (break (const False) [1..]))
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

Examples

>>> break (> 3) [1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4]
([1,2,3],[4,1,2,3,4])

>>> break (< 9) [1,2,3]
([],[1,2,3])

>>> break (> 9) [1,2,3]
([1,2,3],[])

\(\mathcal{O}(\min(m,n))\). The stripPrefix function drops the given prefix from a list. It returns Nothing if the list did not start with the prefix given, or Just the list after the prefix, if it does.

Examples

>>> stripPrefix "foo" "foobar"
Just "bar"

>>> stripPrefix "foo" "foo"
Just ""

>>> stripPrefix "foo" "barfoo"
Nothing

>>> stripPrefix "foo" "barfoobaz"
Nothing

The group function takes a list and returns a list of lists such that the concatenation of the result is equal to the argument. Moreover, each sublist in the result is non-empty, all elements are equal to the first one, and consecutive equal elements of the input end up in the same element of the output list.

group is a special case of groupBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own equality test.

It's often preferable to use Data.List.NonEmpty.group, which provides type-level guarantees of non-emptiness of inner lists. A common idiom to squash repeating elements map head . group is better served by map Data.List.NonEmpty.head . Data.List.NonEmpty.group because it avoids partial functions.

Examples

>>> group "Mississippi"
["M","i","ss","i","ss","i","pp","i"]

>>> group [1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5]
[[1,1,1],[2,2],[3],[4],[5,5]]

The inits function returns all initial segments of the argument, shortest first.

inits is semantically equivalent to map reverse . scanl (flip (:)) [], but under the hood uses a queue to amortize costs of reverse.

Laziness

Examples

>>> inits "abc"
["","a","ab","abc"]

>>> inits []
[[]]

>>> take 5 $ inits [1..]
[[],[1],[1,2],[1,2,3],[1,2,3,4]]

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). The tails function returns all final segments of the argument, longest first.

Laziness

>>> tails undefined
[*** Exception: Prelude.undefined

>>> drop 1 (tails [undefined, 1, 2])
[[1, 2], [2], []]

Examples

>>> tails "abc"
["abc","bc","c",""]

>>> tails [1, 2, 3]
[[1,2,3],[2,3],[3],[]]

>>> tails []
[[]]

\(\mathcal{O}(\min(m,n))\). The isPrefixOf function takes two lists and returns True iff the first list is a prefix of the second.

Examples

>>> "Hello" `isPrefixOf` "Hello World!"
True

>>> "Hello" `isPrefixOf` "Wello Horld!"
False

>>> [0..] `isPrefixOf` [1..]
False

>>> [0..] `isPrefixOf` [0..99]
False

>>> [0..99] `isPrefixOf` [0..]
True

>>> [0..] `isPrefixOf` [0..]
* Hangs forever *

>>> isPrefixOf [] undefined
True

The isSuffixOf function takes two lists and returns True iff the first list is a suffix of the second.

Examples

>>> "ld!" `isSuffixOf` "Hello World!"
True

>>> "World" `isSuffixOf` "Hello World!"
False

>>> [0..] `isSuffixOf` [0..99]
False

>>> [0..99] `isSuffixOf` [0..]
* Hangs forever *

The isInfixOf function takes two lists and returns True iff the first list is contained, wholly and intact, anywhere within the second.

Examples

>>> isInfixOf "Haskell" "I really like Haskell."
True

>>> isInfixOf "Ial" "I really like Haskell."
False

>>> [20..50] `isInfixOf` [0..]
True

>>> [0..] `isInfixOf` [20..50]
False

>>> [0..] `isInfixOf` [0..]
* Hangs forever *

elem is the list membership predicate, usually written in infix form, e.g., x `elem` xs. For the result to be False, the list must be finite; True, however, results from an element equal to x found at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

Examples

>>> 3 `elem` []
False

>>> 3 `elem` [1,2]
False

>>> 3 `elem` [1,2,3,4,5]
True

>>> 3 `elem` [1..]
True

>>> 3 `elem` [4..]
* Hangs forever *

notElem is the negation of elem.

Examples

>>> 3 `notElem` []
True

>>> 3 `notElem` [1,2]
True

>>> 3 `notElem` [1,2,3,4,5]
False

>>> 3 `notElem` [1..]
False

>>> 3 `notElem` [4..]
* Hangs forever *

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). lookup key assocs looks up a key in an association list. For the result to be Nothing, the list must be finite.

Examples

>>> lookup 2 []
Nothing

>>> lookup 2 [(1, "first")]
Nothing

>>> lookup 2 [(1, "first"), (2, "second"), (3, "third")]
Just "second"

The find function takes a predicate and a list and returns the first element in the list matching the predicate, or Nothing if there is no such element. For the result to be Nothing, the list must be finite.

Examples

>>> find (> 4) [1..]
Just 5

>>> find (< 0) [1..10]
Nothing

>>> find ('a' `elem`) ["john", "marcus", "paul"]
Just "marcus"

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). filter, applied to a predicate and a list, returns the list of those elements that satisfy the predicate; i.e.,

filter p xs = [ x | x <- xs, p x]

Examples

>>> filter odd [1, 2, 3]
[1,3]

>>> filter (\l -> length l > 3) ["Hello", ", ", "World", "!"]
["Hello","World"]

>>> filter (/= 3) [1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1]
[1,2,4,2,1]

The partition function takes a predicate and a list, and returns the pair of lists of elements which do and do not satisfy the predicate, respectively; i.e.,

partition p xs == (filter p xs, filter (not . p) xs)

Examples

>>> partition (`elem` "aeiou") "Hello World!"
("eoo","Hll Wrld!")

>>> partition even [1..10]
([2,4,6,8,10],[1,3,5,7,9])

>>> partition (< 5) [1..10]
([1,2,3,4],[5,6,7,8,9,10])

List index (subscript) operator, starting from 0. Returns Nothing if the index is out of bounds

This is the total variant of the partial !! operator.

WARNING: This function takes linear time in the index.

Examples

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !? 0
Just 'a'

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !? 2
Just 'c'

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !? 3
Nothing

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !? (-1)
Nothing

List index (subscript) operator, starting from 0. It is an instance of the more general genericIndex, which takes an index of any integral type.

WARNING: This function is partial, and should only be used if you are sure that the indexing will not fail. Otherwise, use !?.

WARNING: This function takes linear time in the index.

Examples

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !! 0
'a'

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !! 2
'c'

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !! 3
*** Exception: Prelude.!!: index too large

>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'] !! (-1)
*** Exception: Prelude.!!: negative index

The elemIndex function returns the index of the first element in the given list which is equal (by ==) to the query element, or Nothing if there is no such element. For the result to be Nothing, the list must be finite.

Examples

>>> elemIndex 4 [0..]
Just 4

>>> elemIndex 'o' "haskell"
Nothing

>>> elemIndex 0 [1..]
* hangs forever *

The elemIndices function extends elemIndex, by returning the indices of all elements equal to the query element, in ascending order.

Examples

>>> elemIndices 'o' "Hello World"
[4,7]

>>> elemIndices 1 [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
[0,3]

The findIndex function takes a predicate and a list and returns the index of the first element in the list satisfying the predicate, or Nothing if there is no such element. For the result to be Nothing, the list must be finite.

Examples

>>> findIndex isSpace "Hello World!"
Just 5

>>> findIndex odd [0, 2, 4, 6]
Nothing

>>> findIndex even [1..]
Just 1

>>> findIndex odd [0, 2 ..]
* hangs forever *

The findIndices function extends findIndex, by returning the indices of all elements satisfying the predicate, in ascending order.

Examples

>>> findIndices (`elem` "aeiou") "Hello World!"
[1,4,7]

>>> findIndices (\l -> length l > 3) ["a", "bcde", "fgh", "ijklmnop"]
[1,3]

\(\mathcal{O}(\min(m,n))\). zip takes two lists and returns a list of corresponding pairs.

zip is right-lazy:

>>> zip [] undefined
[]
>>> zip undefined []
*** Exception: Prelude.undefined
...

zip is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

Examples

>>> zip [1, 2, 3] ['a', 'b', 'c']
[(1,'a'),(2,'b'),(3,'c')]

>>> zip [1] ['a', 'b']
[(1,'a')]

>>> zip [1, 2] ['a']
[(1,'a')]

>>> zip [] [1..]
[]

>>> zip [1..] []
[]

zip3 takes three lists and returns a list of triples, analogous to zip. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zip4 function takes four lists and returns a list of quadruples, analogous to zip. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zip5 function takes five lists and returns a list of five-tuples, analogous to zip. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zip6 function takes six lists and returns a list of six-tuples, analogous to zip. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zip7 function takes seven lists and returns a list of seven-tuples, analogous to zip. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

\(\mathcal{O}(\min(m,n))\). zipWith generalises zip by zipping with the function given as the first argument, instead of a tupling function.

zipWith (,) xs ys == zip xs ys
zipWith f [x1,x2,x3..] [y1,y2,y3..] == [f x1 y1, f x2 y2, f x3 y3..]

zipWith is right-lazy:

>>> let f = undefined
>>> zipWith f [] undefined
[]

zipWith is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

Examples

>>> zipWith (+) [1, 2, 3] [4, 5, 6]
[5,7,9]

>>> zipWith (++) ["hello ", "foo"] ["world!", "bar"]
["hello world!","foobar"]

\(\mathcal{O}(\min(l,m,n))\). The zipWith3 function takes a function which combines three elements, as well as three lists and returns a list of the function applied to corresponding elements, analogous to zipWith. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

zipWith3 (,,) xs ys zs == zip3 xs ys zs
zipWith3 f [x1,x2,x3..] [y1,y2,y3..] [z1,z2,z3..] == [f x1 y1 z1, f x2 y2 z2, f x3 y3 z3..]

Examples

>>> zipWith3 (\x y z -> [x, y, z]) "123" "abc" "xyz"
["1ax","2by","3cz"]

>>> zipWith3 (\x y z -> (x * y) + z) [1, 2, 3] [4, 5, 6] [7, 8, 9]
[11,18,27]

The zipWith4 function takes a function which combines four elements, as well as four lists and returns a list of their point-wise combination, analogous to zipWith. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zipWith5 function takes a function which combines five elements, as well as five lists and returns a list of their point-wise combination, analogous to zipWith. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zipWith6 function takes a function which combines six elements, as well as six lists and returns a list of their point-wise combination, analogous to zipWith. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

The zipWith7 function takes a function which combines seven elements, as well as seven lists and returns a list of their point-wise combination, analogous to zipWith. It is capable of list fusion, but it is restricted to its first list argument and its resulting list.

unzip transforms a list of pairs into a list of first components and a list of second components.

Examples

>>> unzip []
([],[])

>>> unzip [(1, 'a'), (2, 'b')]
([1,2],"ab")

The unzip3 function takes a list of triples and returns three lists of the respective components, analogous to unzip.

Examples

>>> unzip3 []
([],[],[])

>>> unzip3 [(1, 'a', True), (2, 'b', False)]
([1,2],"ab",[True,False])

The unzip4 function takes a list of quadruples and returns four lists, analogous to unzip.

The unzip5 function takes a list of five-tuples and returns five lists, analogous to unzip.

The unzip6 function takes a list of six-tuples and returns six lists, analogous to unzip.

The unzip7 function takes a list of seven-tuples and returns seven lists, analogous to unzip.

Splits the argument into a list of lines stripped of their terminating \n characters. The \n terminator is optional in a final non-empty line of the argument string.

When the argument string is empty, or ends in a \n character, it can be recovered by passing the result of lines to the unlines function. Otherwise, unlines appends the missing terminating \n. This makes unlines . lines idempotent:

(unlines . lines) . (unlines . lines) = (unlines . lines)

Examples

>>> lines ""           -- empty input contains no lines
[]

>>> lines "\n"         -- single empty line
[""]

>>> lines "one"        -- single unterminated line
["one"]

>>> lines "one\n"      -- single non-empty line
["one"]

>>> lines "one\n\n"    -- second line is empty
["one",""]

>>> lines "one\ntwo"   -- second line is unterminated
["one","two"]

>>> lines "one\ntwo\n" -- two non-empty lines
["one","two"]

words breaks a string up into a list of words, which were delimited by white space (as defined by isSpace). This function trims any white spaces at the beginning and at the end.

Examples

>>> words "Lorem ipsum\ndolor"
["Lorem","ipsum","dolor"]

>>> words " foo bar "
["foo","bar"]

Appends a \n character to each input string, then concatenates the results. Equivalent to foldMap (s -> s ++ "\n").

Examples

>>> unlines ["Hello", "World", "!"]
"Hello\nWorld\n!\n"

>>> unlines . lines $ "foo\nbar"
"foo\nbar\n"

unwords joins words with separating spaces (U+0020 SPACE).

unwords is neither left nor right inverse of words:

>>> words (unwords [" "])
[]
>>> unwords (words "foo\nbar")
"foo bar"

Examples

>>> unwords ["Lorem", "ipsum", "dolor"]
"Lorem ipsum dolor"

>>> unwords ["foo", "bar", "", "baz"]
"foo bar  baz"

\(\mathcal{O}(n^2)\). The nub function removes duplicate elements from a list. In particular, it keeps only the first occurrence of each element. (The name nub means `essence'.) It is a special case of nubBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own equality test.

If there exists instance Ord a, it's faster to use nubOrd from the containers package (link to the latest online documentation), which takes only \(\mathcal{O}(n \log d)\) time where d is the number of distinct elements in the list.

Another approach to speed up nub is to use map Data.List.NonEmpty.head . Data.List.NonEmpty.group . sort, which takes \(\mathcal{O}(n \log n)\) time, requires instance Ord a and doesn't preserve the order.

Examples

>>> nub [1,2,3,4,3,2,1,2,4,3,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]

>>> nub "hello, world!"
"helo, wrd!"

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). delete x removes the first occurrence of x from its list argument.

It is a special case of deleteBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own equality test.

Examples

>>> delete 'a' "banana"
"bnana"

>>> delete "not" ["haskell", "is", "not", "awesome"]
["haskell","is","awesome"]

The \\ function is list difference (non-associative). In the result of xs \\ ys, the first occurrence of each element of ys in turn (if any) has been removed from xs. Thus (xs ++ ys) \\ xs == ys.

It is a special case of deleteFirstsBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own equality test.

Examples

>>> "Hello World!" \\ "ell W"
"Hoorld!"

>>> take 5 ([0..] \\ [2..4])
[0,1,5,6,7]

>>> take 5 ([0..] \\ [2..])
* Hangs forever *

The union function returns the list union of the two lists. It is a special case of unionBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own equality test.

Examples

>>> "dog" `union` "cow"
"dogcw"

>>> import Data.Semigroup(Arg(..))
>>> union [Arg () "dog"] [Arg () "cow"]
[Arg () "dog"]
>>> union [] [Arg () "dog", Arg () "cow"]
[Arg () "dog"]

>>> "coot" `union` "duck"
"cootduk"
>>> "duck" `union` "coot"
"duckot"

>>> [0, 2 ..] `union` [1, 3 ..]
[0,2,4,6,8,10,12..

The intersect function takes the list intersection of two lists. It is a special case of intersectBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own equality test.

Examples

>>> [1,2,3,4] `intersect` [2,4,6,8]
[2,4]

>>> import Data.Semigroup
>>> intersect [Arg () "dog"] [Arg () "cow", Arg () "cat"]
[Arg () "dog"]

>>> "coot" `intersect` "heron"
"oo"
>>> "heron" `intersect` "coot"
"o"

>>> intersect [100..] [0..]
[100,101,102,103...
>>> intersect [0] [1..]
* Hangs forever *
>>> intersect [1..] [0]
* Hangs forever *
>>> intersect (cycle [1..3]) [2]
[2,2,2,2...

The sort function implements a stable sorting algorithm. It is a special case of sortBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own comparison function.

Elements are arranged from lowest to highest, keeping duplicates in the order they appeared in the input.

The argument must be finite.

Examples

>>> sort [1,6,4,3,2,5]
[1,2,3,4,5,6]

>>> sort "haskell"
"aehklls"

>>> import Data.Semigroup(Arg(..))
>>> sort [Arg ":)" 0, Arg ":D" 0, Arg ":)" 1, Arg ":3" 0, Arg ":D" 1]
[Arg ":)" 0,Arg ":)" 1,Arg ":3" 0,Arg ":D" 0,Arg ":D" 1]

Sort a list by comparing the results of a key function applied to each element. sortOn f is equivalent to sortBy (comparing f), but has the performance advantage of only evaluating f once for each element in the input list. This is called the decorate-sort-undecorate paradigm, or Schwartzian transform.

Elements are arranged from lowest to highest, keeping duplicates in the order they appeared in the input.

The argument must be finite.

Examples

>>> sortOn fst [(2, "world"), (4, "!"), (1, "Hello")]
[(1,"Hello"),(2,"world"),(4,"!")]

>>> sortOn length ["jim", "creed", "pam", "michael", "dwight", "kevin"]
["jim","pam","creed","kevin","dwight","michael"]

Performance notes

>>> sortBy (comparing fst) [(3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3)]
[(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)]

>>> (sortBy . comparing) fst [(3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3)]
[(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)]

Since: base-4.8.0.0

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). The insert function takes an element and a list and inserts the element into the list at the first position where it is less than or equal to the next element. In particular, if the list is sorted before the call, the result will also be sorted. It is a special case of insertBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own comparison function.

Examples

>>> insert (-1) [1, 2, 3]
[-1,1,2,3]

>>> insert 'd' "abcefg"
"abcdefg"

>>> insert 4 [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7]
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7]

The nubBy function behaves just like nub, except it uses a user-supplied equality predicate instead of the overloaded (==) function.

Examples

>>> nubBy (\x y -> mod x 3 == mod y 3) [1,2,4,5,6]
[1,2,6]

>>> nubBy (/=) [2, 7, 1, 8, 2, 8, 1, 8, 2, 8]
[2,2,2]

>>> nubBy (>) [1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 5, 4, 5, 3, 2]
[1,2,3,5,5]

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). The deleteBy function behaves like delete, but takes a user-supplied equality predicate.

Examples

>>> deleteBy (<=) 4 [1..10]
[1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,10]

>>> deleteBy (/=) 5 [5, 5, 4, 3, 5, 2]
[5,5,3,5,2]

The deleteFirstsBy function takes a predicate and two lists and returns the first list with the first occurrence of each element of the second list removed. This is the non-overloaded version of (\\).

(\\) == deleteFirstsBy (==)

The second list must be finite, but the first may be infinite.

Examples

>>> deleteFirstsBy (>) [1..10] [3, 4, 5]
[4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

>>> deleteFirstsBy (/=) [1..10] [1, 3, 5]
[4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

The unionBy function is the non-overloaded version of union. Both arguments may be infinite.

Examples

>>> unionBy (>) [3, 4, 5] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[3,4,5,4,5,6]

>>> import Data.Semigroup (Arg(..))
>>> unionBy (/=) [Arg () "Saul"] [Arg () "Kim"]
[Arg () "Saul", Arg () "Kim"]

The intersectBy function is the non-overloaded version of intersect. It is productive for infinite arguments only if the first one is a subset of the second.

The groupBy function is the non-overloaded version of group.

When a supplied relation is not transitive, it is important to remember that equality is checked against the first element in the group, not against the nearest neighbour:

>>> groupBy (\a b -> b - a < 5) [0..19]
[[0,1,2,3,4],[5,6,7,8,9],[10,11,12,13,14],[15,16,17,18,19]]

It's often preferable to use Data.List.NonEmpty.groupBy, which provides type-level guarantees of non-emptiness of inner lists.

Examples

>>> groupBy (/=) [1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 4, 4, 5]
[[1],[1],[1,2,3],[1,4,4,5]]

>>> groupBy (>) [1, 3, 5, 1, 4, 2, 6, 5, 4]
[[1],[3],[5,1,4,2],[6,5,4]]

>>> groupBy (const not) [True, False, True, False, False, False, True]
[[True,False],[True,False,False,False],[True]]

The sortBy function is the non-overloaded version of sort. The argument must be finite.

The supplied comparison relation is supposed to be reflexive and antisymmetric, otherwise, e. g., for _ _ -> GT, the ordered list simply does not exist. The relation is also expected to be transitive: if it is not then sortBy might fail to find an ordered permutation, even if it exists.

Examples

>>> sortBy (\(a,_) (b,_) -> compare a b) [(2, "world"), (4, "!"), (1, "Hello")]
[(1,"Hello"),(2,"world"),(4,"!")]

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). The non-overloaded version of insert.

Examples

>>> insertBy (\x y -> compare (length x) (length y)) [1, 2] [[1], [1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4]]
[[1],[1,2],[1,2,3],[1,2,3,4]]

The maximumBy function takes a comparison function and a list and returns the greatest element of the list by the comparison function. The list must be finite and non-empty. List order is used as a tie-breaker: if there are multiple greatest elements, the last of them is chosen.

Examples

>>> maximumBy (\x y -> compare (length x) (length y)) ["Hello", "World", "!", "Longest", "bar"]
"Longest"

>>> minimumBy (\(a, b) (c, d) -> compare (abs (a - b)) (abs (c - d))) [(10, 15), (1, 2), (3, 5)]
(10, 15)

The minimumBy function takes a comparison function and a list and returns the least element of the list by the comparison function. The list must be finite and non-empty. List order is used as a tie-breaker: if there are multiple least elements, the first of them is chosen.

Examples

>>> minimumBy (\x y -> compare (length x) (length y)) ["Hello", "World", "!", "Longest", "bar"]
"!"

>>> minimumBy (\(a, b) (c, d) -> compare (abs (a - b)) (abs (c - d))) [(10, 15), (1, 2), (3, 5)]
(1, 2)

\(\mathcal{O}(n)\). The genericLength function is an overloaded version of length. In particular, instead of returning an Int, it returns any type which is an instance of Num. It is, however, less efficient than length.

Examples

>>> genericLength [1, 2, 3] :: Int
3
>>> genericLength [1, 2, 3] :: Float
3.0

>>> genericLength [1..200] :: Int8
-56

The genericTake function is an overloaded version of take, which accepts any Integral value as the number of elements to take.

The genericDrop function is an overloaded version of drop, which accepts any Integral value as the number of elements to drop.

The genericSplitAt function is an overloaded version of splitAt, which accepts any Integral value as the position at which to split.

The genericIndex function is an overloaded version of !!, which accepts any Integral value as the index.

The genericReplicate function is an overloaded version of replicate, which accepts any Integral value as the number of repetitions to make.