GHC's profiling system assigns costs to cost centres. A cost is simply the time or space required to evaluate an expression. Cost centres are program annotations around expressions; all costs incurred by the annotated expression are assigned to the enclosing cost centre. Furthermore, GHC will remember the stack of enclosing cost centres for any given expression at run-time and generate a call-graph of cost attributions.

Let's take a look at an example:

main = print (nfib 25)
nfib n = if n < 2 then 1 else nfib (n-1) + nfib (n-2)

Compile and run this program as follows:

$ ghc -prof -auto-all -o Main Main.hs
$ ./Main +RTS -p
121393
$

When a GHC-compiled program is run with the -p RTS option, it generates a file called <prog>.prof. In this case, the file will contain something like this:

          Fri May 12 14:06 2000 Time and Allocation Profiling Report  (Final)

           Main +RTS -p -RTS

        total time  =        0.14 secs   (7 ticks @ 20 ms)
        total alloc =   8,741,204 bytes  (excludes profiling overheads)

COST CENTRE          MODULE     %time %alloc

nfib                 Main       100.0  100.0


                                              individual     inherited
COST CENTRE              MODULE      entries %time %alloc   %time %alloc

MAIN                     MAIN             0    0.0   0.0    100.0 100.0
 main                    Main             0    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.0
 CAF                     PrelHandle       3    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.0
 CAF                     PrelAddr         1    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.0
 CAF                     Main             6    0.0   0.0    100.0 100.0
  main                   Main             1    0.0   0.0    100.0 100.0
   nfib                  Main        242785  100.0 100.0    100.0 100.0

The first part of the file gives the program name and options, and the total time and total memory allocation measured during the run of the program (note that the total memory allocation figure isn't the same as the amount of live memory needed by the program at any one time; the latter can be determined using heap profiling, which we will describe shortly).

The second part of the file is a break-down by cost centre of the most costly functions in the program. In this case, there was only one significant function in the program, namely nfib, and it was responsible for 100% of both the time and allocation costs of the program.

The third and final section of the file gives a profile break-down by cost-centre stack. This is roughly a call-graph profile of the program. In the example above, it is clear that the costly call to nfib came from main.

The time and allocation incurred by a given part of the program is displayed in two ways: “individual”, which are the costs incurred by the code covered by this cost centre stack alone, and “inherited”, which includes the costs incurred by all the children of this node.

The usefulness of cost-centre stacks is better demonstrated by modifying the example slightly:

main = print (f 25 + g 25)
f n  = nfib n
g n  = nfib (n `div` 2)
nfib n = if n < 2 then 1 else nfib (n-1) + nfib (n-2)

Compile and run this program as before, and take a look at the new profiling results:

COST CENTRE              MODULE         scc  %time %alloc   %time %alloc

MAIN                     MAIN             0    0.0   0.0    100.0 100.0
 main                    Main             0    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.0
 CAF                     PrelHandle       3    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.0
 CAF                     PrelAddr         1    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.0
 CAF                     Main             9    0.0   0.0    100.0 100.0
  main                   Main             1    0.0   0.0    100.0 100.0
   g                     Main             1    0.0   0.0      0.0   0.2
    nfib                 Main           465    0.0   0.2      0.0   0.2
   f                     Main             1    0.0   0.0    100.0  99.8
    nfib                 Main        242785  100.0  99.8    100.0  99.8

Now although we had two calls to nfib in the program, it is immediately clear that it was the call from f which took all the time.

The actual meaning of the various columns in the output is:

In addition you can use the -P RTS option to get the following additional information:

What about recursive functions, and mutually recursive groups of functions? Where are the costs attributed? Well, although GHC does keep information about which groups of functions called each other recursively, this information isn't displayed in the basic time and allocation profile, instead the call-graph is flattened into a tree.

6.1.1. Inserting cost centres by hand

Cost centres are just program annotations. When you say -auto-all to the compiler, it automatically inserts a cost centre annotation around every top-level function in your program, but you are entirely free to add the cost centre annotations yourself.

The syntax of a cost centre annotation is

     {-# SCC "name" #-} <expression>

where "name" is an arbitrary string, that will become the name of your cost centre as it appears in the profiling output, and <expression> is any Haskell expression. An SCC annotation extends as far to the right as possible when parsing. (SCC stands for "Set Cost Centre").

Here is an example of a program with a couple of SCCs:

main :: IO ()
main = do let xs = {-# SCC "X" #-} [1..1000000]
          let ys = {-# SCC "Y" #-} [1..2000000]
          print $ last xs
          print $ last $ init xs
          print $ last ys
          print $ last $ init ys

which gives this heap profile when run:

x = nfib 25