Prelude

base-3.0.0.0: Basic libraries

Prelude

Portability	portable
Stability	stable
Maintainer	libraries@haskell.org

Description

The Prelude: a standard module imported by default into all Haskell modules. For more documentation, see the Haskell 98 Report http://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/.

Synopsis

data Bool

= False

| True

(&&) :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool

(||) :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool

not :: Bool -> Bool

otherwise :: Bool

data Maybe a

= Nothing

| Just a

maybe :: b -> (a -> b) -> Maybe a -> b

data Either a b

= Left a

| Right b

either :: (a -> c) -> (b -> c) -> Either a b -> c

data Ordering

= LT

| EQ

| GT

data Char

type String = [Char]

fst :: (a, b) -> a

snd :: (a, b) -> b

curry :: ((a, b) -> c) -> a -> b -> c

uncurry :: (a -> b -> c) -> (a, b) -> c

class Eq a where

(==) :: a -> a -> Bool

(/=) :: a -> a -> Bool

class Eq a => Ord a where

compare :: a -> a -> Ordering

(<) :: a -> a -> Bool

(<=) :: a -> a -> Bool

(>) :: a -> a -> Bool

(>=) :: a -> a -> Bool

max :: a -> a -> a

min :: a -> a -> a

class Enum a where

succ :: a -> a

pred :: a -> a

toEnum :: Int -> a

fromEnum :: a -> Int

enumFrom :: a -> [a]

enumFromThen :: a -> a -> [a]

enumFromTo :: a -> a -> [a]

enumFromThenTo :: a -> a -> a -> [a]

class Bounded a where

minBound :: a

maxBound :: a

data Int

data Integer

data Float

data Double

type Rational = Ratio Integer

class (Eq a, Show a) => Num a where

(+) :: a -> a -> a

(-) :: a -> a -> a

(*) :: a -> a -> a

negate :: a -> a

abs :: a -> a

signum :: a -> a

fromInteger :: Integer -> a

class (Num a, Ord a) => Real a where

toRational :: a -> Rational

class (Real a, Enum a) => Integral a where

quot :: a -> a -> a

rem :: a -> a -> a

div :: a -> a -> a

mod :: a -> a -> a

quotRem :: a -> a -> (a, a)

divMod :: a -> a -> (a, a)

toInteger :: a -> Integer

class Num a => Fractional a where

(/) :: a -> a -> a

recip :: a -> a

fromRational :: Rational -> a

class Fractional a => Floating a where

pi :: a

exp :: a -> a

log :: a -> a

sqrt :: a -> a

(**) :: a -> a -> a

logBase :: a -> a -> a

sin :: a -> a

cos :: a -> a

tan :: a -> a

asin :: a -> a

acos :: a -> a

atan :: a -> a

sinh :: a -> a

cosh :: a -> a

tanh :: a -> a

asinh :: a -> a

acosh :: a -> a

atanh :: a -> a

class (Real a, Fractional a) => RealFrac a where

properFraction :: Integral b => a -> (b, a)

truncate :: Integral b => a -> b

round :: Integral b => a -> b

ceiling :: Integral b => a -> b

floor :: Integral b => a -> b

class (RealFrac a, Floating a) => RealFloat a where

floatRadix :: a -> Integer

floatDigits :: a -> Int

floatRange :: a -> (Int, Int)

decodeFloat :: a -> (Integer, Int)

encodeFloat :: Integer -> Int -> a

exponent :: a -> Int

significand :: a -> a

scaleFloat :: Int -> a -> a

isNaN :: a -> Bool

isInfinite :: a -> Bool

isDenormalized :: a -> Bool

isNegativeZero :: a -> Bool

isIEEE :: a -> Bool

atan2 :: a -> a -> a

subtract :: Num a => a -> a -> a

even :: Integral a => a -> Bool

odd :: Integral a => a -> Bool

gcd :: Integral a => a -> a -> a

lcm :: Integral a => a -> a -> a

(^) :: (Num a, Integral b) => a -> b -> a

(^^) :: (Fractional a, Integral b) => a -> b -> a

fromIntegral :: (Integral a, Num b) => a -> b

realToFrac :: (Real a, Fractional b) => a -> b

class Monad m where

(>>=) :: forall a b . m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b

(>>) :: forall a b . m a -> m b -> m b

return :: a -> m a

fail :: String -> m a

class Functor f where

fmap :: (a -> b) -> f a -> f b

mapM :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> [a] -> m [b]

mapM_ :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> [a] -> m ()

sequence :: Monad m => [m a] -> m [a]

sequence_ :: Monad m => [m a] -> m ()

(=<<) :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> m a -> m b

id :: a -> a

const :: a -> b -> a

(.) :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c

flip :: (a -> b -> c) -> b -> a -> c

($) :: (a -> b) -> a -> b

until :: (a -> Bool) -> (a -> a) -> a -> a

asTypeOf :: a -> a -> a

error :: String -> a

undefined :: a

seq :: a -> b -> b

($!) :: (a -> b) -> a -> b

map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]

(++) :: [a] -> [a] -> [a]

filter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

head :: [a] -> a

last :: [a] -> a

tail :: [a] -> [a]

init :: [a] -> [a]

null :: [a] -> Bool

length :: [a] -> Int

(!!) :: [a] -> Int -> a

reverse :: [a] -> [a]

foldl :: (a -> b -> a) -> a -> [b] -> a

foldl1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> a

foldr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b

foldr1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> a

and :: [Bool] -> Bool

or :: [Bool] -> Bool

any :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Bool

all :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Bool

sum :: Num a => [a] -> a

product :: Num a => [a] -> a

concat :: [[a]] -> [a]

concatMap :: (a -> [b]) -> [a] -> [b]

maximum :: Ord a => [a] -> a

minimum :: Ord a => [a] -> a

scanl :: (a -> b -> a) -> a -> [b] -> [a]

scanl1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> [a]

scanr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> [b]

scanr1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> [a]

iterate :: (a -> a) -> a -> [a]

repeat :: a -> [a]

replicate :: Int -> a -> [a]

cycle :: [a] -> [a]

take :: Int -> [a] -> [a]

drop :: Int -> [a] -> [a]

splitAt :: Int -> [a] -> ([a], [a])

takeWhile :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

dropWhile :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

span :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> ([a], [a])

break :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> ([a], [a])

elem :: Eq a => a -> [a] -> Bool

notElem :: Eq a => a -> [a] -> Bool

lookup :: Eq a => a -> [(a, b)] -> Maybe b

zip :: [a] -> [b] -> [(a, b)]

zip3 :: [a] -> [b] -> [c] -> [(a, b, c)]

zipWith :: (a -> b -> c) -> [a] -> [b] -> [c]

zipWith3 :: (a -> b -> c -> d) -> [a] -> [b] -> [c] -> [d]

unzip :: [(a, b)] -> ([a], [b])

unzip3 :: [(a, b, c)] -> ([a], [b], [c])

lines :: String -> [String]

words :: String -> [String]

unlines :: [String] -> String

unwords :: [String] -> String

type ShowS = String -> String

class Show a where

showsPrec :: Int -> a -> ShowS

show :: a -> String

showList :: [a] -> ShowS

shows :: Show a => a -> ShowS

showChar :: Char -> ShowS

showString :: String -> ShowS

showParen :: Bool -> ShowS -> ShowS

type ReadS a = String -> [(a, String)]

class Read a where

readsPrec :: Int -> ReadS a

readList :: ReadS [a]

reads :: Read a => ReadS a

readParen :: Bool -> ReadS a -> ReadS a

read :: Read a => String -> a

lex :: ReadS String

data IO a

putChar :: Char -> IO ()

putStr :: String -> IO ()

putStrLn :: String -> IO ()

print :: Show a => a -> IO ()

getChar :: IO Char

getLine :: IO String

getContents :: IO String

interact :: (String -> String) -> IO ()

type FilePath = String

readFile :: FilePath -> IO String

writeFile :: FilePath -> String -> IO ()

appendFile :: FilePath -> String -> IO ()

readIO :: Read a => String -> IO a

readLn :: Read a => IO a

type IOError = IOException

ioError :: IOError -> IO a

userError :: String -> IOError

catch :: IO a -> (IOError -> IO a) -> IO a

Standard types, classes and related functions

Basic data types

data Bool

The Bool type is an enumeration. It is defined with False first so that the corresponding Enum instance will give fromEnum False the value zero, and fromEnum True the value 1.

Constructors

False
True

Instances

(&&) :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool

Boolean "and"

(||) :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool

Boolean "or"

not :: Bool -> Bool

Boolean "not"

otherwise :: Bool

otherwise is defined as the value True. It helps to make guards more readable. eg.

  f x | x < 0     = ...
      | otherwise = ...

data Maybe a

The Maybe type encapsulates an optional value. A value of type Maybe a either contains a value of type a (represented as Just a), or it is empty (represented as Nothing). Using Maybe is a good way to deal with errors or exceptional cases without resorting to drastic measures such as error.

The Maybe type is also a monad. It is a simple kind of error monad, where all errors are represented by Nothing. A richer error monad can be built using the Either type.

Constructors

Nothing
Just a

Instances

Data a => Data (Maybe a)

Eq a => Eq (Maybe a)

Monoid a => Monoid (Maybe a)

Ord a => Ord (Maybe a)

Read a => Read (Maybe a)

Show a => Show (Maybe a)

maybe :: b -> (a -> b) -> Maybe a -> b

The maybe function takes a default value, a function, and a Maybe value. If the Maybe value is Nothing, the function returns the default value. Otherwise, it applies the function to the value inside the Just and returns the result.

data Either a b

The Either type represents values with two possibilities: a value of type Either a b is either Left a or Right b.

The Either type is sometimes used to represent a value which is either correct or an error; by convention, the Left constructor is used to hold an error value and the Right constructor is used to hold a correct value (mnemonic: "right" also means "correct").

Constructors

Left a
Right b

Instances

Typeable2 Either

Functor (Either a)

(Data a, Data b) => Data (Either a b)

(Eq a, Eq b) => Eq (Either a b)

(Ord a, Ord b) => Ord (Either a b)

(Read a, Read b) => Read (Either a b)

(Show a, Show b) => Show (Either a b)

either :: (a -> c) -> (b -> c) -> Either a b -> c

Case analysis for the Either type. If the value is Left a, apply the first function to a; if it is Right b, apply the second function to b.

data Ordering

Represents an ordering relationship between two values: less than, equal to, or greater than. An Ordering is returned by compare.

Constructors

LT
EQ
GT

Instances

data Char

The character type Char is an enumeration whose values represent Unicode (or equivalently ISO/IEC 10646) characters (see http://www.unicode.org/ for details). This set extends the ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) character set (the first 256 charachers), which is itself an extension of the ASCII character set (the first 128 characters). A character literal in Haskell has type Char.

To convert a Char to or from the corresponding Int value defined by Unicode, use toEnum and fromEnum from the Enum class respectively (or equivalently ord and chr).

Instances

type String = [Char]

A String is a list of characters. String constants in Haskell are values of type String.

Tuples

fst :: (a, b) -> a

Extract the first component of a pair.

snd :: (a, b) -> b

Extract the second component of a pair.

curry :: ((a, b) -> c) -> a -> b -> c

curry converts an uncurried function to a curried function.

uncurry :: (a -> b -> c) -> (a, b) -> c

uncurry converts a curried function to a function on pairs.

Basic type classes

class Eq a where

The Eq class defines equality (==) and inequality (/=). All the basic datatypes exported by the Prelude are instances of Eq, and Eq may be derived for any datatype whose constituents are also instances of Eq.

Minimal complete definition: either == or /=.

Methods

(==) :: a -> a -> Bool

(/=) :: a -> a -> Bool

Instances

Eq BufferState

Eq FDType

Eq HashData

Eq Inserts

Eq Key

Eq KeyPr

Eq Timeout

Eq ()

(Eq a, Eq b) => Eq (a, b)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c) => Eq (a, b, c)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d) => Eq (a, b, c, d)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i, Eq j) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i, Eq j, Eq k) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i, Eq j, Eq k, Eq l) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i, Eq j, Eq k, Eq l, Eq m) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i, Eq j, Eq k, Eq l, Eq m, Eq n) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n)

(Eq a, Eq b, Eq c, Eq d, Eq e, Eq f, Eq g, Eq h, Eq i, Eq j, Eq k, Eq l, Eq m, Eq n, Eq o) => Eq (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o)

(RealFloat a, Eq a) => Eq (Complex a)

Eq a => Eq (Dual a)

Eq a => Eq (First a)

Eq (Fixed a)

Eq (ForeignPtr a)

Eq (FunPtr a)

Eq (IORef a)

Eq a => Eq (Last a)

Eq (MVar a)

Eq a => Eq (Maybe a)

Eq a => Eq (Product a)

Eq (Ptr a)

(Integral a, Eq a) => Eq (Ratio a)

Eq (StableName a)

Eq (StablePtr a)

Eq a => Eq (Sum a)

Eq (TVar a)

Eq a => Eq [a]

(Ix i, Eq e) => Eq (Array i e)

(Eq a, Eq b) => Eq (Either a b)

Eq (IOArray i e)

Eq (STRef s a)

Eq (STArray s i e)

class Eq a => Ord a where

The Ord class is used for totally ordered datatypes.

Instances of Ord can be derived for any user-defined datatype whose constituent types are in Ord. The declared order of the constructors in the data declaration determines the ordering in derived Ord instances. The Ordering datatype allows a single comparison to determine the precise ordering of two objects.

Minimal complete definition: either compare or <=. Using compare can be more efficient for complex types.

Methods

compare :: a -> a -> Ordering

(<) :: a -> a -> Bool

(<=) :: a -> a -> Bool

(>) :: a -> a -> Bool

(>=) :: a -> a -> Bool

max :: a -> a -> a

min :: a -> a -> a

Instances

Ord ()

(Ord a, Ord b) => Ord (a, b)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c) => Ord (a, b, c)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d) => Ord (a, b, c, d)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i, Ord j) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i, Ord j, Ord k) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i, Ord j, Ord k, Ord l) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i, Ord j, Ord k, Ord l, Ord m) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i, Ord j, Ord k, Ord l, Ord m, Ord n) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n)

(Ord a, Ord b, Ord c, Ord d, Ord e, Ord f, Ord g, Ord h, Ord i, Ord j, Ord k, Ord l, Ord m, Ord n, Ord o) => Ord (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o)

Ord a => Ord (Dual a)

Ord a => Ord (First a)

Ord (Fixed a)

Ord (ForeignPtr a)

Ord (FunPtr a)

Ord a => Ord (Last a)

Ord a => Ord (Maybe a)

Ord a => Ord (Product a)

Ord (Ptr a)

Integral a => Ord (Ratio a)

Ord a => Ord (Sum a)

Ord a => Ord [a]

(Ix i, Ord e) => Ord (Array i e)

(Ord a, Ord b) => Ord (Either a b)

class Enum a where

Class Enum defines operations on sequentially ordered types.

The enumFrom... methods are used in Haskell's translation of arithmetic sequences.

Instances of Enum may be derived for any enumeration type (types whose constructors have no fields). The nullary constructors are assumed to be numbered left-to-right by fromEnum from 0 through n-1. See Chapter 10 of the Haskell Report for more details.

For any type that is an instance of class Bounded as well as Enum, the following should hold:

The calls succ maxBound and pred minBound should result in a runtime error.
fromEnum and toEnum should give a runtime error if the result value is not representable in the result type. For example, toEnum 7 :: Bool is an error.
enumFrom and enumFromThen should be defined with an implicit bound, thus:

	enumFrom     x   = enumFromTo     x maxBound
	enumFromThen x y = enumFromThenTo x y bound
	  where
	    bound | fromEnum y >= fromEnum x = maxBound
	          | otherwise                = minBound

Methods

succ :: a -> a

the successor of a value. For numeric types, succ adds 1.

pred :: a -> a

the predecessor of a value. For numeric types, pred subtracts 1.

toEnum :: Int -> a

Convert from an Int.

fromEnum :: a -> Int

Convert to an Int. It is implementation-dependent what fromEnum returns when applied to a value that is too large to fit in an Int.

enumFrom :: a -> [a]

Used in Haskell's translation of [n..].

enumFromThen :: a -> a -> [a]

Used in Haskell's translation of [n,n'..].

enumFromTo :: a -> a -> [a]

Used in Haskell's translation of [n..m].

enumFromThenTo :: a -> a -> a -> [a]

Used in Haskell's translation of [n,n'..m].

Instances

class Bounded a where

The Bounded class is used to name the upper and lower limits of a type. Ord is not a superclass of Bounded since types that are not totally ordered may also have upper and lower bounds.

The Bounded class may be derived for any enumeration type; minBound is the first constructor listed in the data declaration and maxBound is the last. Bounded may also be derived for single-constructor datatypes whose constituent types are in Bounded.

Methods

minBound :: a

maxBound :: a

Instances

Bounded GeneralCategory

Bounded ()

(Bounded a, Bounded b) => Bounded (a, b)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c) => Bounded (a, b, c)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d) => Bounded (a, b, c, d)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i, Bounded j) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i, Bounded j, Bounded k) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i, Bounded j, Bounded k, Bounded l) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i, Bounded j, Bounded k, Bounded l, Bounded m) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i, Bounded j, Bounded k, Bounded l, Bounded m, Bounded n) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n)

(Bounded a, Bounded b, Bounded c, Bounded d, Bounded e, Bounded f, Bounded g, Bounded h, Bounded i, Bounded j, Bounded k, Bounded l, Bounded m, Bounded n, Bounded o) => Bounded (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o)

Bounded a => Bounded (Dual a)

Bounded a => Bounded (Product a)

Bounded a => Bounded (Sum a)

Numbers

Numeric types

data Int

A fixed-precision integer type with at least the range [-2^29 .. 2^29-1]. The exact range for a given implementation can be determined by using minBound and maxBound from the Bounded class.

Instances

data Integer

Arbitrary-precision integers.

Instances

data Float

Single-precision floating point numbers. It is desirable that this type be at least equal in range and precision to the IEEE single-precision type.

Instances

data Double

Double-precision floating point numbers. It is desirable that this type be at least equal in range and precision to the IEEE double-precision type.

Instances

type Rational = Ratio Integer

Arbitrary-precision rational numbers, represented as a ratio of two Integer values. A rational number may be constructed using the % operator.

Numeric type classes

class (Eq a, Show a) => Num a where

Basic numeric class.

Minimal complete definition: all except negate or (-)

Methods

(+) :: a -> a -> a

(-) :: a -> a -> a

(*) :: a -> a -> a

negate :: a -> a

Unary negation.

abs :: a -> a

Absolute value.

signum :: a -> a

Sign of a number. The functions abs and signum should satisfy the law:

 abs x * signum x == x

For real numbers, the signum is either -1 (negative), 0 (zero) or 1 (positive).

fromInteger :: Integer -> a

Conversion from an Integer. An integer literal represents the application of the function fromInteger to the appropriate value of type Integer, so such literals have type (Num a) => a.

Instances

RealFloat a => Num (Complex a)

HasResolution a => Num (Fixed a)

Integral a => Num (Ratio a)

class (Num a, Ord a) => Real a where

Methods

toRational :: a -> Rational

the rational equivalent of its real argument with full precision

Instances

class (Real a, Enum a) => Integral a where

Integral numbers, supporting integer division.

Minimal complete definition: quotRem and toInteger

Methods

quot :: a -> a -> a

integer division truncated toward zero

rem :: a -> a -> a

integer remainder, satisfying

 (x `quot` y)*y + (x `rem` y) == x

div :: a -> a -> a

integer division truncated toward negative infinity

mod :: a -> a -> a

integer modulus, satisfying

 (x `div` y)*y + (x `mod` y) == x

quotRem :: a -> a -> (a, a)

simultaneous quot and rem

divMod :: a -> a -> (a, a)

simultaneous div and mod

toInteger :: a -> Integer

conversion to Integer

Instances

class Num a => Fractional a where

Fractional numbers, supporting real division.

Minimal complete definition: fromRational and (recip or (/))

Methods

(/) :: a -> a -> a

fractional division

recip :: a -> a

reciprocal fraction

fromRational :: Rational -> a

Conversion from a Rational (that is Ratio Integer). A floating literal stands for an application of fromRational to a value of type Rational, so such literals have type (Fractional a) => a.

Instances

RealFloat a => Fractional (Complex a)

HasResolution a => Fractional (Fixed a)

Integral a => Fractional (Ratio a)

class Fractional a => Floating a where

Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and related functions.

Minimal complete definition: pi, exp, log, sin, cos, sinh, cosh, asin, acos, atan, asinh, acosh and atanh

Methods

pi :: a

exp :: a -> a

log :: a -> a

sqrt :: a -> a

(**) :: a -> a -> a

logBase :: a -> a -> a

sin :: a -> a

cos :: a -> a

tan :: a -> a

asin :: a -> a

acos :: a -> a

atan :: a -> a

sinh :: a -> a

cosh :: a -> a

tanh :: a -> a

asinh :: a -> a

acosh :: a -> a

atanh :: a -> a

Instances

RealFloat a => Floating (Complex a)

class (Real a, Fractional a) => RealFrac a where

Extracting components of fractions.

Minimal complete definition: properFraction

Methods

properFraction :: Integral b => a -> (b, a)

The function properFraction takes a real fractional number x and returns a pair (n,f) such that x = n+f, and:

n is an integral number with the same sign as x; and
f is a fraction with the same type and sign as x, and with absolute value less than 1.

The default definitions of the ceiling, floor, truncate and round functions are in terms of properFraction.

truncate :: Integral b => a -> b

truncate x returns the integer nearest x between zero and x

round :: Integral b => a -> b

round x returns the nearest integer to x

ceiling :: Integral b => a -> b

ceiling x returns the least integer not less than x

floor :: Integral b => a -> b

floor x returns the greatest integer not greater than x

Instances

HasResolution a => RealFrac (Fixed a)

Integral a => RealFrac (Ratio a)

class (RealFrac a, Floating a) => RealFloat a where

Efficient, machine-independent access to the components of a floating-point number.

Minimal complete definition: all except exponent, significand, scaleFloat and atan2

Methods

floatRadix :: a -> Integer

a constant function, returning the radix of the representation (often 2)

floatDigits :: a -> Int

a constant function, returning the number of digits of floatRadix in the significand

floatRange :: a -> (Int, Int)

a constant function, returning the lowest and highest values the exponent may assume

decodeFloat :: a -> (Integer, Int)

The function decodeFloat applied to a real floating-point number returns the significand expressed as an Integer and an appropriately scaled exponent (an Int). If decodeFloat x yields (m,n), then x is equal in value to m*b^^n, where b is the floating-point radix, and furthermore, either m and n are both zero or else b^(d-1) <= m < b^d, where d is the value of floatDigits x. In particular, decodeFloat 0 = (0,0).

encodeFloat :: Integer -> Int -> a

encodeFloat performs the inverse of decodeFloat

exponent :: a -> Int

the second component of decodeFloat.

significand :: a -> a

the first component of decodeFloat, scaled to lie in the open interval (-1,1)

scaleFloat :: Int -> a -> a

multiplies a floating-point number by an integer power of the radix

isNaN :: a -> Bool

True if the argument is an IEEE "not-a-number" (NaN) value

isInfinite :: a -> Bool

True if the argument is an IEEE infinity or negative infinity

isDenormalized :: a -> Bool

True if the argument is too small to be represented in normalized format

isNegativeZero :: a -> Bool

True if the argument is an IEEE negative zero

isIEEE :: a -> Bool

True if the argument is an IEEE floating point number

atan2 :: a -> a -> a

a version of arctangent taking two real floating-point arguments. For real floating x and y, atan2 y x computes the angle (from the positive x-axis) of the vector from the origin to the point (x,y). atan2 y x returns a value in the range [-pi, pi]. It follows the Common Lisp semantics for the origin when signed zeroes are supported. atan2 y 1, with y in a type that is RealFloat, should return the same value as atan y. A default definition of atan2 is provided, but implementors can provide a more accurate implementation.

Instances

subtract :: Num a => a -> a -> a

the same as flip ('-').

Because - is treated specially in the Haskell grammar, (- e) is not a section, but an application of prefix negation. However, (subtract exp) is equivalent to the disallowed section.

even :: Integral a => a -> Bool

odd :: Integral a => a -> Bool

gcd :: Integral a => a -> a -> a

gcd x y is the greatest (positive) integer that divides both x and y; for example gcd (-3) 6 = 3, gcd (-3) (-6) = 3, gcd 0 4 = 4. gcd 0 0 raises a runtime error.

lcm :: Integral a => a -> a -> a

lcm x y is the smallest positive integer that both x and y divide.

(^) :: (Num a, Integral b) => a -> b -> a

raise a number to a non-negative integral power

(^^) :: (Fractional a, Integral b) => a -> b -> a

raise a number to an integral power

fromIntegral :: (Integral a, Num b) => a -> b

general coercion from integral types

realToFrac :: (Real a, Fractional b) => a -> b

general coercion to fractional types

Monads and functors

class Monad m where

The Monad class defines the basic operations over a monad, a concept from a branch of mathematics known as category theory. From the perspective of a Haskell programmer, however, it is best to think of a monad as an abstract datatype of actions. Haskell's do expressions provide a convenient syntax for writing monadic expressions.

Minimal complete definition: >>= and return.

Instances of Monad should satisfy the following laws:

 return a >>= k  ==  k a
 m >>= return  ==  m
 m >>= (\x -> k x >>= h)  ==  (m >>= k) >>= h

Instances of both Monad and Functor should additionally satisfy the law:

 fmap f xs  ==  xs >>= return . f

The instances of Monad for lists, Maybe and IO defined in the Prelude satisfy these laws.

Methods

(>>=) :: forall a b . m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b

Sequentially compose two actions, passing any value produced by the first as an argument to the second.

(>>) :: forall a b . m a -> m b -> m b

Sequentially compose two actions, discarding any value produced by the first, like sequencing operators (such as the semicolon) in imperative languages.

return :: a -> m a

Inject a value into the monadic type.

fail :: String -> m a

Fail with a message. This operation is not part of the mathematical definition of a monad, but is invoked on pattern-match failure in a do expression.

Instances

Monad P

Monad []

ArrowApply a => Monad (ArrowMonad a)

Monad (ST s)

Monad ((->) r)

class Functor f where

The Functor class is used for types that can be mapped over. Instances of Functor should satisfy the following laws:

 fmap id  ==  id
 fmap (f . g)  ==  fmap f . fmap g

The instances of Functor for lists, Maybe and IO defined in the Prelude satisfy these laws.

Methods

fmap :: (a -> b) -> f a -> f b

Instances

Functor Id

Functor []

Ix i => Functor (Array i)

Functor (Const m)

Functor (Either a)

Functor (ST s)

Monad m => Functor (WrappedMonad m)

Functor ((,) a)

Functor ((->) r)

Arrow a => Functor (WrappedArrow a b)

mapM :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> [a] -> m [b]

mapM f is equivalent to sequence . map f.

mapM_ :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> [a] -> m ()

mapM_ f is equivalent to sequence_ . map f.

sequence :: Monad m => [m a] -> m [a]

Evaluate each action in the sequence from left to right, and collect the results.

sequence_ :: Monad m => [m a] -> m ()

Evaluate each action in the sequence from left to right, and ignore the results.

(=<<) :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> m a -> m b

Same as >>=, but with the arguments interchanged.

Miscellaneous functions

id :: a -> a

Identity function.

const :: a -> b -> a

Constant function.

(.) :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c

Function composition.

flip :: (a -> b -> c) -> b -> a -> c

flip f takes its (first) two arguments in the reverse order of f.

($) :: (a -> b) -> a -> b

Application operator. This operator is redundant, since ordinary application (f x) means the same as (f $ x). However, $ has low, right-associative binding precedence, so it sometimes allows parentheses to be omitted; for example:

     f $ g $ h x  =  f (g (h x))

It is also useful in higher-order situations, such as map ($ 0) xs, or zipWith ($) fs xs.

until :: (a -> Bool) -> (a -> a) -> a -> a

until p f yields the result of applying f until p holds.

asTypeOf :: a -> a -> a

asTypeOf is a type-restricted version of const. It is usually used as an infix operator, and its typing forces its first argument (which is usually overloaded) to have the same type as the second.

error :: String -> a

error stops execution and displays an error message.

undefined :: a

A special case of error. It is expected that compilers will recognize this and insert error messages which are more appropriate to the context in which undefined appears.

seq :: a -> b -> b

The value of seq a b is bottom if a is bottom, and otherwise equal to b. seq is usually introduced to improve performance by avoiding unneeded laziness.

($!) :: (a -> b) -> a -> b

Strict (call-by-value) application, defined in terms of seq.

List operations

map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]

map f xs is the list obtained by applying f to each element of xs, i.e.,

 map f [x1, x2, ..., xn] == [f x1, f x2, ..., f xn]
 map f [x1, x2, ...] == [f x1, f x2, ...]

(++) :: [a] -> [a] -> [a]

Append two lists, i.e.,

 [x1, ..., xm] ++ [y1, ..., yn] == [x1, ..., xm, y1, ..., yn]
 [x1, ..., xm] ++ [y1, ...] == [x1, ..., xm, y1, ...]

If the first list is not finite, the result is the first list.

filter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

filter, applied to a predicate and a list, returns the list of those elements that satisfy the predicate; i.e.,

 filter p xs = [ x | x <- xs, p x]

head :: [a] -> a

Extract the first element of a list, which must be non-empty.

last :: [a] -> a

Extract the last element of a list, which must be finite and non-empty.

tail :: [a] -> [a]

Extract the elements after the head of a list, which must be non-empty.

init :: [a] -> [a]

Return all the elements of a list except the last one. The list must be finite and non-empty.

null :: [a] -> Bool

Test whether a list is empty.

length :: [a] -> Int

length returns the length of a finite list as an Int. It is an instance of the more general genericLength, the result type of which may be any kind of number.

(!!) :: [a] -> Int -> a

List index (subscript) operator, starting from 0. It is an instance of the more general genericIndex, which takes an index of any integral type.

reverse :: [a] -> [a]

reverse xs returns the elements of xs in reverse order. xs must be finite.

Reducing lists (folds)

foldl :: (a -> b -> a) -> a -> [b] -> a

foldl, applied to a binary operator, a starting value (typically the left-identity of the operator), and a list, reduces the list using the binary operator, from left to right:

 foldl f z [x1, x2, ..., xn] == (...((z `f` x1) `f` x2) `f`...) `f` xn

The list must be finite.

foldl1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> a

foldl1 is a variant of foldl that has no starting value argument, and thus must be applied to non-empty lists.

foldr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b

foldr, applied to a binary operator, a starting value (typically the right-identity of the operator), and a list, reduces the list using the binary operator, from right to left:

 foldr f z [x1, x2, ..., xn] == x1 `f` (x2 `f` ... (xn `f` z)...)

foldr1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> a

foldr1 is a variant of foldr that has no starting value argument, and thus must be applied to non-empty lists.

Special folds

and :: [Bool] -> Bool

and returns the conjunction of a Boolean list. For the result to be True, the list must be finite; False, however, results from a False value at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

or :: [Bool] -> Bool

or returns the disjunction of a Boolean list. For the result to be False, the list must be finite; True, however, results from a True value at a finite index of a finite or infinite list.

any :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Bool

Applied to a predicate and a list, any determines if any element of the list satisfies the predicate.

all :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Bool

Applied to a predicate and a list, all determines if all elements of the list satisfy the predicate.

sum :: Num a => [a] -> a

The sum function computes the sum of a finite list of numbers.

product :: Num a => [a] -> a

The product function computes the product of a finite list of numbers.

concat :: [[a]] -> [a]

Concatenate a list of lists.

concatMap :: (a -> [b]) -> [a] -> [b]

Map a function over a list and concatenate the results.

maximum :: Ord a => [a] -> a

maximum returns the maximum value from a list, which must be non-empty, finite, and of an ordered type. It is a special case of maximumBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own comparison function.

minimum :: Ord a => [a] -> a

minimum returns the minimum value from a list, which must be non-empty, finite, and of an ordered type. It is a special case of minimumBy, which allows the programmer to supply their own comparison function.

Building lists

Scans

scanl :: (a -> b -> a) -> a -> [b] -> [a]

scanl is similar to foldl, but returns a list of successive reduced values from the left:

 scanl f z [x1, x2, ...] == [z, z `f` x1, (z `f` x1) `f` x2, ...]

Note that

 last (scanl f z xs) == foldl f z xs.

scanl1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> [a]

scanl1 is a variant of scanl that has no starting value argument:

 scanl1 f [x1, x2, ...] == [x1, x1 `f` x2, ...]

scanr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> [b]

scanr is the right-to-left dual of scanl. Note that

 head (scanr f z xs) == foldr f z xs.

scanr1 :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> [a]

scanr1 is a variant of scanr that has no starting value argument.

Infinite lists

iterate :: (a -> a) -> a -> [a]

iterate f x returns an infinite list of repeated applications of f to x:

 iterate f x == [x, f x, f (f x), ...]

repeat :: a -> [a]

repeat x is an infinite list, with x the value of every element.

replicate :: Int -> a -> [a]

replicate n x is a list of length n with x the value of every element. It is an instance of the more general genericReplicate, in which n may be of any integral type.

cycle :: [a] -> [a]

cycle ties a finite list into a circular one, or equivalently, the infinite repetition of the original list. It is the identity on infinite lists.

Sublists

take :: Int -> [a] -> [a]

take n, applied to a list xs, returns the prefix of xs of length n, or xs itself if n > length xs:

 take 5 "Hello World!" == "Hello"
 take 3 [1,2,3,4,5] == [1,2,3]
 take 3 [1,2] == [1,2]
 take 3 [] == []
 take (-1) [1,2] == []
 take 0 [1,2] == []

It is an instance of the more general genericTake, in which n may be of any integral type.

drop :: Int -> [a] -> [a]

drop n xs returns the suffix of xs after the first n elements, or [] if n > length xs:

 drop 6 "Hello World!" == "World!"
 drop 3 [1,2,3,4,5] == [4,5]
 drop 3 [1,2] == []
 drop 3 [] == []
 drop (-1) [1,2] == [1,2]
 drop 0 [1,2] == [1,2]

It is an instance of the more general genericDrop, in which n may be of any integral type.

splitAt :: Int -> [a] -> ([a], [a])

splitAt n xs returns a tuple where first element is xs prefix of length n and second element is the remainder of the list:

 splitAt 6 "Hello World!" == ("Hello ","World!")
 splitAt 3 [1,2,3,4,5] == ([1,2,3],[4,5])
 splitAt 1 [1,2,3] == ([1],[2,3])
 splitAt 3 [1,2,3] == ([1,2,3],[])
 splitAt 4 [1,2,3] == ([1,2,3],[])
 splitAt 0 [1,2,3] == ([],[1,2,3])
 splitAt (-1) [1,2,3] == ([],[1,2,3])

It is equivalent to (take n xs, drop n xs). splitAt is an instance of the more general genericSplitAt, in which n may be of any integral type.

takeWhile :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

takeWhile, applied to a predicate p and a list xs, returns the longest prefix (possibly empty) of xs of elements that satisfy p:

 takeWhile (< 3) [1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4] == [1,2]
 takeWhile (< 9) [1,2,3] == [1,2,3]
 takeWhile (< 0) [1,2,3] == []

dropWhile :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]

dropWhile p xs returns the suffix remaining after takeWhile p xs:

 dropWhile (< 3) [1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3] == [3,4,5,1,2,3]
 dropWhile (< 9) [1,2,3] == []
 dropWhile (< 0) [1,2,3] == [1,2,3]

span :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> ([a], [a])

span, applied to a predicate p and a list xs, returns a tuple where first element is longest prefix (possibly empty) of xs of elements that satisfy p and second element is the remainder of the list:

 span (< 3) [1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4] == ([1,2],[3,4,1,2,3,4])
 span (< 9) [1,2,3] == ([1,2,3],[])
 span (< 0) [1,2,3] == ([],[1,2,3])

span p xs is equivalent to (takeWhile p xs, dropWhile p xs)

break :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> ([a], [a])

break, applied to a predicate p and a list xs, returns a tuple where first element is longest prefix (possibly empty) of xs of elements that do not satisfy p and second element is the remainder of the list:

 break (> 3) [1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4] == ([1,2,3],[4,1,2,3,4])
 break (< 9) [1,2,3] == ([],[1,2,3])
 break (> 9) [1,2,3] == ([1,2,3],[])

break p is equivalent to span (not . p).

Searching lists

elem :: Eq a => a -> [a] -> Bool

elem is the list membership predicate, usually written in infix form, e.g., x elem xs.

notElem :: Eq a => a -> [a] -> Bool

notElem is the negation of elem.

lookup :: Eq a => a -> [(a, b)] -> Maybe b

lookup key assocs looks up a key in an association list.

Zipping and unzipping lists

zip :: [a] -> [b] -> [(a, b)]

zip takes two lists and returns a list of corresponding pairs. If one input list is short, excess elements of the longer list are discarded.

zip3 :: [a] -> [b] -> [c] -> [(a, b, c)]

zip3 takes three lists and returns a list of triples, analogous to zip.

zipWith :: (a -> b -> c) -> [a] -> [b] -> [c]

zipWith generalises zip by zipping with the function given as the first argument, instead of a tupling function. For example, zipWith (+) is applied to two lists to produce the list of corresponding sums.

zipWith3 :: (a -> b -> c -> d) -> [a] -> [b] -> [c] -> [d]

The zipWith3 function takes a function which combines three elements, as well as three lists and returns a list of their point-wise combination, analogous to zipWith.

unzip :: [(a, b)] -> ([a], [b])

unzip transforms a list of pairs into a list of first components and a list of second components.

unzip3 :: [(a, b, c)] -> ([a], [b], [c])

The unzip3 function takes a list of triples and returns three lists, analogous to unzip.

Functions on strings

lines :: String -> [String]

lines breaks a string up into a list of strings at newline characters. The resulting strings do not contain newlines.

words :: String -> [String]

words breaks a string up into a list of words, which were delimited by white space.

unlines :: [String] -> String

unlines is an inverse operation to lines. It joins lines, after appending a terminating newline to each.

unwords :: [String] -> String

unwords is an inverse operation to words. It joins words with separating spaces.

Converting to and from String

Converting to String

type ShowS = String -> String

The shows functions return a function that prepends the output String to an existing String. This allows constant-time concatenation of results using function composition.

class Show a where

Conversion of values to readable Strings.

Minimal complete definition: showsPrec or show.

Derived instances of Show have the following properties, which are compatible with derived instances of Read:

The result of show is a syntactically correct Haskell expression containing only constants, given the fixity declarations in force at the point where the type is declared. It contains only the constructor names defined in the data type, parentheses, and spaces. When labelled constructor fields are used, braces, commas, field names, and equal signs are also used.
If the constructor is defined to be an infix operator, then showsPrec will produce infix applications of the constructor.
the representation will be enclosed in parentheses if the precedence of the top-level constructor in x is less than d (associativity is ignored). Thus, if d is 0 then the result is never surrounded in parentheses; if d is 11 it is always surrounded in parentheses, unless it is an atomic expression.
If the constructor is defined using record syntax, then show will produce the record-syntax form, with the fields given in the same order as the original declaration.

For example, given the declarations

 infixr 5 :^:
 data Tree a =  Leaf a  |  Tree a :^: Tree a

the derived instance of Show is equivalent to

 instance (Show a) => Show (Tree a) where

        showsPrec d (Leaf m) = showParen (d > app_prec) $
             showString "Leaf " . showsPrec (app_prec+1) m
          where app_prec = 10

        showsPrec d (u :^: v) = showParen (d > up_prec) $
             showsPrec (up_prec+1) u . 
             showString " :^: "      .
             showsPrec (up_prec+1) v
          where up_prec = 5

Note that right-associativity of :^: is ignored. For example,

show (Leaf 1 :^: Leaf 2 :^: Leaf 3) produces the string "Leaf 1 :^: (Leaf 2 :^: Leaf 3)".

Methods

showsPrec

:: Int	the operator precedence of the enclosing context (a number from `0` to `11`). Function application has precedence `10`.
-> a	the value to be converted to a `String`
-> ShowS
Convert a value to a readable `String`. `showsPrec` should satisfy the law showsPrec d x r ++ s == showsPrec d x (r ++ s) Derived instances of `Read` and `Show` satisfy the following: `(x,"")` is an element of `(readsPrec d (showsPrec d x ""))`. That is, `readsPrec` parses the string produced by `showsPrec`, and delivers the value that `showsPrec` started with.

show :: a -> String

A specialised variant of showsPrec, using precedence context zero, and returning an ordinary String.

showList :: [a] -> ShowS

The method showList is provided to allow the programmer to give a specialised way of showing lists of values. For example, this is used by the predefined Show instance of the Char type, where values of type String should be shown in double quotes, rather than between square brackets.

Instances

Show HandleType

Show HashData

Show ()

(Show a, Show b) => Show (a, b)

(Show a, Show b, Show c) => Show (a, b, c)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d) => Show (a, b, c, d)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e) => Show (a, b, c, d, e)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i, Show j) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i, Show j, Show k) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i, Show j, Show k, Show l) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i, Show j, Show k, Show l, Show m) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i, Show j, Show k, Show l, Show m, Show n) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n)

(Show a, Show b, Show c, Show d, Show e, Show f, Show g, Show h, Show i, Show j, Show k, Show l, Show m, Show n, Show o) => Show (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o)

Show (a -> b)

(RealFloat a, Show a) => Show (Complex a)

Show a => Show (Dual a)

Show a => Show (First a)

HasResolution a => Show (Fixed a)

Show (ForeignPtr a)

Show (FunPtr a)

Show a => Show (Last a)

Show a => Show (Maybe a)

Show a => Show (Product a)

Show (Ptr a)

Integral a => Show (Ratio a)

Show a => Show (Sum a)

Show a => Show [a]

(Ix a, Show a, Show b) => Show (Array a b)

(Show a, Show b) => Show (Either a b)

Show (ST s a)

shows :: Show a => a -> ShowS

equivalent to showsPrec with a precedence of 0.

showChar :: Char -> ShowS

utility function converting a Char to a show function that simply prepends the character unchanged.

showString :: String -> ShowS

utility function converting a String to a show function that simply prepends the string unchanged.

showParen :: Bool -> ShowS -> ShowS

utility function that surrounds the inner show function with parentheses when the Bool parameter is True.

Converting from String

type ReadS a = String -> [(a, String)]

A parser for a type a, represented as a function that takes a String and returns a list of possible parses as (a,String) pairs.

Note that this kind of backtracking parser is very inefficient; reading a large structure may be quite slow (cf ReadP).

class Read a where

Parsing of Strings, producing values.

Minimal complete definition: readsPrec (or, for GHC only, readPrec)

Derived instances of Read make the following assumptions, which derived instances of Show obey:

If the constructor is defined to be an infix operator, then the derived Read instance will parse only infix applications of the constructor (not the prefix form).
Associativity is not used to reduce the occurrence of parentheses, although precedence may be.
If the constructor is defined using record syntax, the derived Read will parse only the record-syntax form, and furthermore, the fields must be given in the same order as the original declaration.
The derived Read instance allows arbitrary Haskell whitespace between tokens of the input string. Extra parentheses are also allowed.

For example, given the declarations

 infixr 5 :^:
 data Tree a =  Leaf a  |  Tree a :^: Tree a

the derived instance of Read in Haskell 98 is equivalent to

 instance (Read a) => Read (Tree a) where

         readsPrec d r =  readParen (d > app_prec)
                          (\r -> [(Leaf m,t) |
                                  ("Leaf",s) <- lex r,
                                  (m,t) <- readsPrec (app_prec+1) s]) r

                       ++ readParen (d > up_prec)
                          (\r -> [(u:^:v,w) |
                                  (u,s) <- readsPrec (up_prec+1) r,
                                  (":^:",t) <- lex s,
                                  (v,w) <- readsPrec (up_prec+1) t]) r

           where app_prec = 10
                 up_prec = 5

Note that right-associativity of :^: is unused.

The derived instance in GHC is equivalent to

 instance (Read a) => Read (Tree a) where

         readPrec = parens $ (prec app_prec $ do
                                  Ident "Leaf" <- lexP
                                  m <- step readPrec
                                  return (Leaf m))

                      +++ (prec up_prec $ do
                                  u <- step readPrec
                                  Symbol ":^:" <- lexP
                                  v <- step readPrec
                                  return (u :^: v))

           where app_prec = 10
                 up_prec = 5

         readListPrec = readListPrecDefault

Methods

readsPrec

:: Int the operator precedence of the enclosing context (a number from 0 to 11). Function application has precedence 10.

-> ReadS a

attempts to parse a value from the front of the string, returning a list of (parsed value, remaining string) pairs. If there is no successful parse, the returned list is empty.

Derived instances of Read and Show satisfy the following:

(x,"") is an element of (readsPrec d (showsPrec d x "")).

That is, readsPrec parses the string produced by showsPrec, and delivers the value that showsPrec started with.

readList :: ReadS [a]

The method readList is provided to allow the programmer to give a specialised way of parsing lists of values. For example, this is used by the predefined Read instance of the Char type, where values of type String should be are expected to use double quotes, rather than square brackets.

Instances

Read ()

(Read a, Read b) => Read (a, b)

(Read a, Read b, Read c) => Read (a, b, c)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d) => Read (a, b, c, d)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e) => Read (a, b, c, d, e)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i, Read j) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i, Read j, Read k) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i, Read j, Read k, Read l) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i, Read j, Read k, Read l, Read m) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i, Read j, Read k, Read l, Read m, Read n) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n)

(Read a, Read b, Read c, Read d, Read e, Read f, Read g, Read h, Read i, Read j, Read k, Read l, Read m, Read n, Read o) => Read (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o)

(RealFloat a, Read a) => Read (Complex a)

Read a => Read (Dual a)

Read a => Read (First a)

Read a => Read (Last a)

Read a => Read (Maybe a)

Read a => Read (Product a)

(Integral a, Read a) => Read (Ratio a)

Read a => Read (Sum a)

Read a => Read [a]

(Ix a, Read a, Read b) => Read (Array a b)

(Read a, Read b) => Read (Either a b)

reads :: Read a => ReadS a

equivalent to readsPrec with a precedence of 0.

readParen :: Bool -> ReadS a -> ReadS a

readParen True p parses what p parses, but surrounded with parentheses.

readParen False p parses what p parses, but optionally surrounded with parentheses.

read :: Read a => String -> a

The read function reads input from a string, which must be completely consumed by the input process.

lex :: ReadS String

The lex function reads a single lexeme from the input, discarding initial white space, and returning the characters that constitute the lexeme. If the input string contains only white space, lex returns a single successful `lexeme' consisting of the empty string. (Thus lex "" = [("","")].) If there is no legal lexeme at the beginning of the input string, lex fails (i.e. returns []).

This lexer is not completely faithful to the Haskell lexical syntax in the following respects:

Qualified names are not handled properly
Octal and hexadecimal numerics are not recognized as a single token
Comments are not treated properly

Basic Input and output

data IO a

A value of type IO a is a computation which, when performed, does some I/O before returning a value of type a.

There is really only one way to "perform" an I/O action: bind it to Main.main in your program. When your program is run, the I/O will be performed. It isn't possible to perform I/O from an arbitrary function, unless that function is itself in the IO monad and called at some point, directly or indirectly, from Main.main.

IO is a monad, so IO actions can be combined using either the do-notation or the >> and >>= operations from the Monad class.

Instances

Typeable a => Data (IO a)

HPrintfType (IO a)

PrintfType (IO a)

Simple I/O operations

Output functions

putChar :: Char -> IO ()

Write a character to the standard output device (same as hPutChar stdout).

putStr :: String -> IO ()

Write a string to the standard output device (same as hPutStr stdout).

putStrLn :: String -> IO ()

The same as putStr, but adds a newline character.

print :: Show a => a -> IO ()

The print function outputs a value of any printable type to the standard output device. Printable types are those that are instances of class Show; print converts values to strings for output using the show operation and adds a newline.

For example, a program to print the first 20 integers and their powers of 2 could be written as:

 main = print ([(n, 2^n) | n <- [0..19]])

Input functions

getChar :: IO Char

Read a character from the standard input device (same as hGetChar stdin).

getLine :: IO String

Read a line from the standard input device (same as hGetLine stdin).

getContents :: IO String

The getContents operation returns all user input as a single string, which is read lazily as it is needed (same as hGetContents stdin).

interact :: (String -> String) -> IO ()

The interact function takes a function of type String->String as its argument. The entire input from the standard input device is passed to this function as its argument, and the resulting string is output on the standard output device.

Files

type FilePath = String

File and directory names are values of type String, whose precise meaning is operating system dependent. Files can be opened, yielding a handle which can then be used to operate on the contents of that file.

readFile :: FilePath -> IO String

The readFile function reads a file and returns the contents of the file as a string. The file is read lazily, on demand, as with getContents.

writeFile :: FilePath -> String -> IO ()

The computation writeFile file str function writes the string str, to the file file.

appendFile :: FilePath -> String -> IO ()

The computation appendFile file str function appends the string str, to the file file.

Note that writeFile and appendFile write a literal string to a file. To write a value of any printable type, as with print, use the show function to convert the value to a string first.

 main = appendFile "squares" (show [(x,x*x) | x <- [0,0.1..2]])

readIO :: Read a => String -> IO a

The readIO function is similar to read except that it signals parse failure to the IO monad instead of terminating the program.

readLn :: Read a => IO a

The readLn function combines getLine and readIO.

Exception handling in the I/O monad

type IOError = IOException

The Haskell 98 type for exceptions in the IO monad. Any I/O operation may raise an IOError instead of returning a result. For a more general type of exception, including also those that arise in pure code, see Exception.

In Haskell 98, this is an opaque type.

ioError :: IOError -> IO a

Raise an IOError in the IO monad.

userError :: String -> IOError

Construct an IOError value with a string describing the error. The fail method of the IO instance of the Monad class raises a userError, thus:

 instance Monad IO where 
   ...
   fail s = ioError (userError s)

catch :: IO a -> (IOError -> IO a) -> IO a

The catch function establishes a handler that receives any IOError raised in the action protected by catch. An IOError is caught by the most recent handler established by catch. These handlers are not selective: all IOErrors are caught. Exception propagation must be explicitly provided in a handler by re-raising any unwanted exceptions. For example, in

 f = catch g (\e -> if IO.isEOFError e then return [] else ioError e)

the function f returns [] when an end-of-file exception (cf. isEOFError) occurs in g; otherwise, the exception is propagated to the next outer handler.

When an exception propagates outside the main program, the Haskell system prints the associated IOError value and exits the program.

Non-I/O exceptions are not caught by this variant; to catch all exceptions, use catch from Control.Exception.

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